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Physicist Kamerin Onnes successfully liquefied helium in 1908, liquefying helium, the last permanent gas on earth.； His discovery of superconductivity in 1911 led to the birth of superconducting physics. Kamerin Onnes won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1913 for his major breakthroughs in low-temperature physics and his successful liquefaction of helium. In 1938, physicist Kapitsa experimentally confirmed the superfluidity of helium (4He), and collaborated with Semyonov to propose a new method.: Disturb atoms with a non-uniform magnetic field to determine their magnetic moments. For this he won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1978. On the basis of the statistical theory to explain superfluidity proposed by physicist London in 1939, physicist Landau proposed the quantum theory of helium II superfluidity in 1941. He personally won the 1962 Nobel Prize in Physics for his theoretical research on superfluidity. Regarding the phenomenon of superconductivity, it was not until 1957 that scientists made a relatively successful theoretical explanation. Physicists Bardeen, Cooper and Schriever proposed that there are pairs of electrons in superconductors. These pairs of electrons can pass smoothly through channels composed of atoms that have lost some electrons without causing atomic vibration, which is a superconducting phenomenon. These three scientists won the 1972 Nobel Prize in Physics. Later scientists discovered that there are two kinds of superconductors. One type is called type I superconductor, which is mainly a metallic superconductor. It has a shielding effect on magnetic fields, which means that magnetic fields cannot enter the inside of the superconductor. If the external magnetic field is too strong, it will destroy the superconducting properties of the superconductor. The other type is called type II superconductor, which is mainly alloy and ceramic superconductor, which allows magnetic fields to pass through. In 1957 Alexei Abrikosov proposed a theory that could explain the characteristics of type II superconductors. This theory explains why type II superconductors have low resistance and allow magnetic fields to pass through them. The 1987 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to physicist Bonozzi and physicist Müller for their major breakthrough in discovering the superconductivity of ceramic materials. In the early 1970s, at Cornell University's Low Temperature Physics Laboratory, David. Lee, Osherov and Richardson discovered that the helium isotope ------3He becomes superfluid at about 0.002K above absolute zero. This superfluid quantum liquid is different from the 4He superfluid, a conventional isotope of helium that was discovered in the 1930s. The new quantum liquid 3He has many very special properties, proving that microphysical quantum laws sometimes directly affect the behavior of macroscopic objects. These three physicists also won the 1996 Nobel Prize in Physics for discovering the superfluidity of 3He. The 2003 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to physicists Alexei Abelikosov, Vitaly Ginzburg and Antoni Leggett in recognition of their pioneering contributions in the fields of superconductors and superfluids. From the above recognition of receiving the Nobel Prize in low-temperature physics, it can be seen that in less than 100 years since the discovery of superconductivity and superfluidity phenomena, many cryogenic workers have attached great importance to the exploration of the low-temperature world. This also reflects that low-temperature physics research is in the ascendant. This post was last edited by konggu on 2008-1-15 22:16 ]