An Overview of Coal in China
Thread Content
China has a vast territory and abundant resources, which serve as the material foundation upon which the Chinese nation relies to thrive, develop, and establish its place among the nations of the world. Among the 142 minerals that have been discovered, coal holds a particularly important position; it is abundant in resources and widely distributed. The area covered by coal deposits is about 550,000 square kilometers, ranking it among the largest coal reserves in the world. The geological periods of coal accumulation in China, from oldest to youngest, are mainly: the Early Cambrian of the Paleozoic Era; the Early Carboniferous and Late Carboniferous–Early Permian of the Paleozoic Era, and the Late Permian ； The Late Triassic of the Mesozoic era, the Early and Middle Jurassic periods, the Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous period, and the Tertiary period of the Cenozoic era. Among them, coal formation was most intense during the four coal-forming periods: Late Carboniferous–Early Permian, Late Permian, Early and Middle Jurassic, and Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous. Coal-bearing strata can be found throughout China, including those from the Proterozoic, Early Paleozoic, Late Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic eras; every province (region) has coal fields of varying sizes and economic value. The coal-forming periods and the distribution of coal-bearing strata in China are as follows: there are six coal-forming regions in North China, South China, Northwest China, Southwest China (Yunnan and Tibet), Northeast China, and Taiwan, each with its own characteristics. The main coal-forming period in the North China coal-bearing area is the Carboniferous-Permian period. The Jurassic period follows, with coal accumulation also occurring in the Tertiary period; there are also sporadic occurrences of Permian lignite from the Sinian-Cambrian period. The coal-bearing strata from the Carboniferous and Permian periods are the most widely distributed and hold the largest reserves; these include the Taiyuan Formation of the Upper Carboniferous, the Benxi Formation of the Middle Carboniferous, as well as the Shanxi Formation and Shihexi Formation of the Permian period ； The main coalfields include Qinsui, Huoxi, Hedong, Datong, and Ningwu in Shanxi; Zibo, Feicheng, Xinwen, Zaoteng, Yan, Yanzhou, and Jining in Shandong; Weibei in Shaanxi; Zhungeer in Inner Mongolia; Helanshan-Zizishan, Wei, and Weizhou in Ningxia; Benxi and Shenan in Liaoning; Tonghua in Jilin; Kailuan, Xinglong, Jingxing, Fengfeng, and Handan in Hebei; Jingxi in Beijing; Hebi, Jiaozuo, and Pingdingshan in Henan; Xuzhou-Jiawang in Jiangsu; Huainan and Huaibei in Anhui, etc ； The Jurassic coal-bearing areas are mainly concentrated in the western and eastern parts of this region, including the Jingxi Mentougou Formation, the Shanxi Datong Formation, and the Inner Mongolia Shiguaizi Formation, among others ； The main coal fields include Jingxi, Datong, Ningwu, Daqingshan (Shiguaizi), Ordos, and Fangzi ； The Tertiary coal-bearing strata are mainly distributed in the Linqu, Changle, and Huangxian areas of Shandong, as well as in northern Hebei and Shanxi ； Sinian-Cambrian lignite is mainly found in Wutai Mountain in Shanxi, Neixiang and Xichuan in Henan, as well as in Yanliao area of Hebei. In the coal-forming region of South China, there were numerous coal-forming periods, these periods lasted for a long time and were widely distributed. There is lignite from the Sinian period to the Early Paleozoic; coal deposits also existed during the Late Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Tertiary periods. In addition, there are peat deposits from the Quaternary period ； The main coal-forming periods are the Early Carboniferous, Early and Late Permian, Late Triassic–Early Jurassic, and Tertiary period, among which the Late Permian is the most significant ； The main coal-bearing strata in the Paleozoic era are the Early Carboniferous Dakanian formation, which is widely distributed in Hunan, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, and Yunnan; coal is also present in the Upper and Lower Permian formations ； The main coalfields are Xuanwei, Fuyuan, Liuzhi, Panxian, Shuicheng, Nantong, Zhongliangshan, Tianfu, Heshan, Fusuai, Lianshao, Binei, Xingmei, Tianhushan, Longyong, Changguang, Southern Jiangsu, Southern Anhui, Pingle, and others ； The Mesozoic coal-bearing formations mainly include the Anyuan Formation of the Late Triassic and the Jinji Formation of the Early Jurassic ； The main coal fields include Yipinglang, Ducou, Xiwan, Zhexi, Pingle, Zixuan, Zigui, Jingdang, etc. Coal-bearing strata from the early Tertiary period of the Cenozoic are found south of the Nanling Mountains, as well as in western Yunnan ； The coal-bearing strata of the Neotertiary are mainly concentrated in the south, especially in Yunnan, with the Xiaolongtan Formation being the typical formation ； The Tertiary coal fields mainly include Xiaolongtan, Yiliang, Zhaotong, Baise, Changchang, Maoming, etc. In the Paleozoic era, lignite was mainly found in southern Shaanxi, western Hubei, western Hunan, western Zhejiang, southern Anhui, and other areas. The main coal-forming periods in the northwestern coal-bearing region are the Early and Middle Jurassic; the Carboniferous period follows. There are also scattered deposits of lignite from the Tertiary period and peat from the Quaternary period. In the western section of the Qinling Mountains, Wudu in Gansu, and the border areas of Sichuan, there are deposits of Paleozoic lignite as well. The main coal-bearing strata from the Carboniferous period include the Taiyuan Formation of the Upper Carboniferous and the Benxi Formation of the Middle Carboniferous; these are primarily found in the Hexi Corridor and the Qilian Mountains area ； Coal-bearing strata of the Paulian period are distributed throughout the region, including mainly the Shiguaizi Group in Inner Mongolia, the Xiaomeigou Formation in Qinghai, and the Badaowan Formation in Xinjiang. The major coal fields are Yongdeng and Yaojie in Gansu, Datonghe in Qinghai, as well as the Turpan-Hami, Urumqi-Yining, Kusu-Yutian areas in Xinjiang. The coal-forming periods in the coal-rich areas of the southwest (Yunnan and Tibet) include the Late Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic. The coal-bearing strata from the Late Paleozoic are mainly found in the Changdu area up to the Wuli region in Qinghai ； Mesozoic coal-bearing strata are widely distributed. The Randan Xiyangyun Coal Formation of the Upper Triassic is found in western Yunnan, while the Tumengela and Bagong Coal Formations are located in northern Tibet. The Middle and Lower Jurassic strata are found near Lhasa in central Tibet. The Middle and Upper Jurassic strata as well as the Lower Cretaceous strata are also present in Tibet. The Qiuwu Coal Formation of the Late Cretaceous is found in the Shigatse region ； The Tertiary coal-bearing strata are mainly distributed in the Jianchuan and Shuanghe areas of western Yunnan, as well as in Tengchong, Lianghe, Baoshan, and Cangyuan in southwestern Yunnan. Scattered occurrences can be found only at the southern foot of the Himalayas, near Lhasa, and in the northern Tibetan lake regions. In the coal-forming areas of the northeast, the main coal-forming period was the Jurassic (including the Early Cretaceous), followed by the Tertiary period; coal-bearing strata from these two periods are widespread. The main coal-bearing formations from the Jurassic (including the Early Cretaceous) include the Hongqi Formation in Jilin, the Muling Formation and Chengzihé Formation in Heilongjiang, etc. The major coalfields are located in Jixi, Shuangyashan, Hegang, Boli, Helong, Yanji, Jiaohé, Zhanor, Yakeshi, Baiyinhua, Yuanbaoshan, Beipiao, Fuxin, Tiefa, and other places ； The coal-bearing strata of the Early Tertiary period in the Cenozoic are mainly found in Liaoning, Heilongjiang, Jilin, Inner Mongolia and other regions; there are also sporadic occurrences in the Neotertiary period ； The main coal fields from the Tertiary period include Fushun, Shenbei, Shulan, Hunchun, etc ； Permian coal-bearing strata are also found in the Baqing area of northern Heilongjiang. In Taiwan’s coal-forming regions, the main coal formation period was the Neogene, with coal deposits primarily located in the Alishan marginal depression zone, especially in areas west of the Central Mountain Range such as Keelung, Taipei, Hsinchu, and Miaoli. China has a complete range of coal types, including lignite, bituminous coal, subbituminous coal, weakly caking coal, gas coal, rich coal, coking coal, lean coal, poor coal, and anthracite. Coal varies in quality and is widely distributed: in the coal-bearing areas of North China, the coal deposits from the Tertiary period of the Cenozoic era are all lignite, or contain a small amount of bituminous coal ； Most Mesozoic Triassic-Jurassic coal fields consist of poorly metamorphosed bituminous coals and gas coals; only the Rujigou area in Ningxia, Jingxi in Beijing, and Fangzi in Shandong contain anthracite ； The coal in the Paleozoic Carboniferous-Permian coalfields is highly metamorphosed, with the highly metamorphosed bituminous and anthracite zones in the central areas being the main feature; the degree of coal metamorphism decreases gradually toward the edges of the coal-forming regions, where medium- and low-metamorphosed bituminous coals appear in sequence. In the South China coal-bearing region, the Quaternary period of the Cenozoic is characterized by peat, while the Tertiary period is mainly composed of lignite ； In the Mesozoic and Late Paleozoic periods, there was mainly highly metamorphosed bituminous coal and anthracite; there was also a small amount of moderately and poorly metamorphosed bituminous coal. The lignite from the Early Paleozoic period had an anthracite-level degree of metamorphism. In the coal-bearing region in the northwest, during the Quaternary period there was peat, while in the Tertiary period there was lignite. The degree of metamorphism of the coal in the Mesozoic and Late Paleozoic periods varied, and there were many different types of coal, but poorly metamorphosed bituminous coal was the most common. The lignite from the Early Paleozoic period had an anthracite-level degree of metamorphism. In the coal-bearing region in the southwest (Yunnan and Tibet), during the Tertiary period of the Cenozoic era, lignite and poorly metamorphosed bituminous coal were predominant, with some moderately metamorphosed bituminous coal as well ； Mesozoic coals are mainly medium to moderately high-grade metamorphosed bituminous coals, with some anthracite as well ； Except in some areas, Paleozoic coal is generally high-grade metamorphic bituminous coal. The coal-rich areas in the northeast are mainly low-metamorphic bituminous coal, followed by lignite and medium- to low-metamorphic bituminous coal, while medium-to-high-metamorphic bituminous coal and anthracite are less common. The coal types in Taiwan’s coal-bearing areas are relatively simple, consisting of low-graded lignite and bituminous coal. China has abundant coal resources and considerable reserves, which have attracted worldwide attention. The German geologist Ferdinand Freiherr von Richthofen traveled to China seven times between 1861 and 1872, visiting 14 provinces including Guangdong, Hunan, Hubei, Sichuan, Shaanxi, Shanxi, Gansu, Henan, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Anhui, Jiangxi, Shandong, and Hebei. He referred to China as the \"world’s number one coal country.\" In 1929, Weng Wenhao and Hu Boyuan announced that China’s coal reserves amounted to 265.455 billion tons. Before the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the book \"A Record of Chinese Mining\" estimated China’s coal reserves at 450 billion tons. After its establishment, according to the second national coal field assessment conducted between 1974 and 1980, the total coal reserves in the People’s Republic of China at depths of 2000 meters or less amounted to 5,059.219 billion tons. Among them, by the age of the coal-bearing strata, the Tertiary period accounts for 0.72%, the Late Jurassic period accounts for 6.97%. The Early and Middle Jurassic periods together account for 60.4%, the Late Triassic period accounts for 0.64%. As for the Permian period (in the south), it accounts for 5.01%; the Carboniferous-Permian period (in the north) accounts for 26.01%; and other periods account for 0.23% ； Classified by burial depth, those at depths of less than 1000 meters account for 46.83%, those between 1000 and 1500 meters account for 25.10%, and those between 1500 and 2000 meters account for 28.07% ； Classified by predicted reliability level: reliable accounts for 31.45%, possible for 44.19%, and inferred for 24.36% ； By coal type: lignite accounts for 6.81%, bituminous coal for 21.59%, subbituminous coal for 25.53%, bituminous coal again for 25.53%, weakly bituminous coal for 2.97%. Gas coal makes up 9.76%, fat coal 5.03%, coking coal 2.94%, lean coal 2.70%, and poor-quality coal 2.85%. Anthracite accounts for 7.92%, while unclassified coal constitutes 11.90%. This forecast offers a wide range of data of high quality, providing a scientific basis for formulating development plans for China’s coal industry, preparing plans for geological surveys of coal fields, and determining the directions for coal exploration. China is the country in the world that first discovered, utilized, and mined coal. According to archaeological artifacts and relevant records, earrings, hairpins, rings, and pendants carved from coal tar were discovered in the remains from the late Neolithic period in China as well as in tombs from the Western and Eastern Zhou dynasties, in regions such as Liaoning and Shaanxi. This indicates that the ancestors in China during this period not only possessed the ability to process coal tar but could also access coal deposits that were exposed at shallow depths. China is the world’s largest coal producer as well as a major consumer of coal. In 1996, China ranked third in the world in terms of proven coal reserves, with the annual coal mining volume across the industry reaching nearly 1 billion tons. The coal industry has become an important foundation for the rapid development of the national economy.
The actual situation of China’s coal industry is unclear, and its production levels are unknown, which will severely affect decision-making and corporate investment, and may even impact the country’s energy security. Coal is extremely important to China; at least for now, its role cannot be replaced by any other resource, and statistical data clearly illustrates this point. In 2003, China’s total energy production amounted to 1,603 million tons of standard coal; coal accounted for 74.2% of this amount, crude oil accounted for 15.2%, while natural gas and hydropower accounted for 2.9% and 7.7% respectively ； In the same year, the total energy consumption was 1,678 million tons of standard coal, with coal, oil, natural gas, and hydropower accounting for 67.1%, 22.7%, 2.8%, and 7.4% respectively. From the above two sources, it is evident that since the reform and opening up, coal has accounted for around 70% of the total in both energy production and consumption. This illustrates the significant role of coal in China’s economic life. If anything goes wrong in the coal industry, it would be an unbearable burden for our country. From the above two sources, it is evident that since the reform and opening up, coal has accounted for around 70% of the total in both energy production and consumption. This illustrates the significant role of coal in China’s economic life. If anything goes wrong in the coal industry, it would be an unbearable burden for our country. Unclear understanding of resources Coal is so important, yet there are some strange phenomena in China’s coal industry; firstly, it seems that we don’t have a very clear idea of our country’s coal resources. Sha Yiqiang, a senior engineer at the China Electricity Council, expressed concern, stating that according to the latest statistics, China’s total available coal reserves amount to nearly 190 billion tons. If the consumption rate of 1.9 billion tons estimated in 2004 is maintained, these reserves could be exploited for 100 years. But if we also take into account the current recovery rate of less than 40%, an actual amount of 5 billion tons of coal will be consumed each year; based on this calculation, 190 billion tons of coal can only last for about 40 years. Han Xiaoping, a renowned expert on coal issues and CEO of China Energy Network, told New Finance that overall, there are approximately 200 billion tons of coal resources that can be mined at present. Currently, we extract around 2 billion tons of coal per year, with the recovery rate in state-owned coal mines being about 30%, while it may be as low as 15% in smaller mines ； At 30%, 6 billion tons of coal resources are consumed each year, which means it will only last for over 30 years. “In other words, there is only so much cheap and easily extractable coal available; in the future, the cost of extraction will be much higher than it is now, and coal prices could become even higher – 600 to 700 yuan per ton or more would be quite normal. ” Of course, these claims have not been recognized by the authorities. In response to the claim by some experts that China’s coal reserves will last only 40 years, Zhang Xiaoqiang, deputy head of the National Development and Reform Commission, said that China currently has proven coal reserves of 1 trillion tons. With an annual consumption rate of 2 billion tons, it will be entirely possible for China to rely on coal as its primary energy source for a long time to come. However, Zhang Xiaoqiang also admitted that there is a significant gap in China’s quantified, surveyed, and thoroughly assessed coal resources at present. The quantified reserves available for use in large and medium-sized mines amount to only around 30 billion tons. It is estimated that by 2010, the gap in China’s quantified coal reserves will be around 50 billion tons, and by 2020 it will be around 125 billion tons. However, even among official figures, the data provided by different departments vary greatly. **Figures provided by the General Administration of Coal Mine Safety show that the proven reserves of coal resources amount to 114.5 billion tons” ； The figure provided by the Ministry of Land and Resources is “189.2 billion tons of proven usable reserves”” ； The figures provided by the China Coal Geology Administration show that “the agency has identified a total of over 200 billion tons of reserves that are suitable for coal mining, accounting for more than 90% of the country’s total proven reserves.” **Gao Shixian, director of the Center for Energy Economics and Development Strategies at the Energy Research Institute of the National Development and Reform Commission, also told New Finance that China has relatively abundant total coal resources. However, he didn’t say to what extent it was rich. It seems that it’s very difficult to truly understand one’s financial situation over a certain period of time. Not only that, but the actual amount of coal produced currently is also a matter of confusion. In 2004, in order to determine how much coal had been produced in China the previous year, the **National Development and Reform Commission issued an urgent notice calling for a survey of coal production across the country. Previously, three different figures were released regarding the country’s coal production: The **Weekly Coal Operations Report** issued by the Dispatching Center of the National Coal Mine Safety Supervision Administration indicated that the national output of raw coal was 1.608 billion tons ； A month later, the Statistical Bulletin released by the dispatching center stated that the national production of raw coal was 1.736 billion tons ； Subsequently, on February 27, the **Statistics Bureau announced that the national production of raw coal was 1.667 billion tons. “Statistics on the coal industry have long been incomplete. ”Industry insiders told New Finance. The poor state of the industry: Unclear financial conditions and unknown production levels can severely impact decision-making and corporate investment, and may even affect our country’s energy security, as we still rely primarily on coal for our energy needs at present. The problem is that in such an important industry, the treatment of its workers is extremely poor, and the entire industry remains on the verge of minimal profits or losses for a long time. Since the founding of the country, we have adopted a low-price policy for coal. In 1992, coal prices were **liberalized**, but a **guideline price** was set for thermal coal, which accounts for the largest share in coal consumption, keeping coal prices at relatively low levels. Lower coal prices have led to a significant disparity in profit levels between the coal industry and other industrial sectors. Furthermore, the low level of coal prices kept the coal industry on the verge of minimal profits or losses for 50 years since the first Five-Year Plan, with the entire industry suffering losses for 25 of those years. In recent years, there has been a tight demand for coal, leading to a rebound in coal prices and an improvement in the profitability of coal companies. However, Pu Hongjiu, the first vice president of the China Coal Industry Association, pointed out that even in 2003, when economic performance was at its best, the 14 billion yuan in profits generated by coal enterprises above a certain scale was achieved on the back of average wage levels for employees that were 1,050 yuan lower than the national average, 16,217 yuan lower than the average wages of employees in central power enterprises, more than 50 billion yuan in arrears related to work safety that had not been settled, and numerous asset losses that had not been addressed in a timely manner. If any one of these factors is taken into account, the entire industry will go from profit to loss. Poor efficiency directly leads to insufficient investment in safety by enterprises, and this lack of investment in safety makes coal miners in China one of the most endangered professions in the world. In the coal mining industry, the death rate per million tons of coal in the United States is 0.03, in India it is 0.5, and in Russia it is 0.65. In our country, in 2003, the death rate per million tons of coal produced in national coal mines was 3.17; among these, the death rate per million tons in state-owned key coal mines was 1.07 ； State-owned local coal mines 3.00 ； Rural coal mines account for 7.61 (see the figure below for details). In order to reduce costs and save money, companies often ignore the safety of their workers, resorting to any means necessary, such as using outdated, low-quality machinery that lacks safety features ； Failing to install equipment for cooling, ventilation, noise reduction, and dust removal in accordance with the Labor Protection Regulations. Moreover, in many small and medium-sized coal mines as well as private coal mines, the costs associated with work-related injuries and occupational diseases are essentially borne by the workers themselves. Some companies dismiss workers who have become disabled due to work-related injuries or occupational diseases with only minimal compensation, or even no compensation at all. What’s worse, in some places, **in an effort to boost local economic growth, to improve officials’ performance records, and to increase local fiscal revenue, they turn a blind eye to companies lowering safety standards on their own, or even support such actions** ； In order to keep their positions, local officials and business owners collude with each other to conceal and cover up serious safety accidents; this not only prevents the victims from receiving proper compensation but also stops those responsible from being held accountable. Worse still, since many local officials are directly or indirectly involved in running mines and factories or accepting bribes, colluding with one another to act as a protective shield, some illegal owners become emboldened and disregard the lives of workers in pursuit of profit. In recent years, the illegal operation of small coal mines has persisted despite repeated bans, and accidents occur frequently; official corruption is a significant factor in this.
Not aimed at the original poster! “The phrase “China has a vast territory and abundant resources” should no longer be mentioned! Look at our population and calculate the average amount per person – that’s the real approach! Compared to Russia, the United States, Canada, and so on**, with our huge population, how to ensure that every citizen can benefit from the resources of our country is undoubtedly the biggest challenge we face. The original poster’s information is quite detailed, but it’s also a bit “old.” It should be known that not all types of coal are used in our daily lives and industrial production. Many of the areas mentioned above are actually already facing, or are about to face, a situation where there is no coal left to be mined. We must be fully aware that it is truly necessary to pursue a path of sustainable development!