Is hydrogen embrittlement corrosion?

Hydrogen brittleness is a typical form of localized corrosion. Measures to prevent hydrogen embrittlement: 1) Reduce hydrogen content ； 2) Increase the solubility of hydrogen in metals or alloys ； 3) Ensure the operating environment ； 4) Select the appropriate heat treatment process to eliminate residual stresses ； 5) Others, such as surface coatings, anodization, and hydrogen-absorbing media.

Could you explain in more detail upstairs what solubility actually is? How can the solubility of hydrogen in metals or alloys be increased? Additionally, how is the use of hydrogen-absorbing media implemented in practice?

Stress corrosion cracking and hydrogen embrittlement are two related yet distinct phenomena of failure (or cracking) in metallic materials. Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is a metal failure phenomenon caused by the combined effect of stress and a corrosive environment (see metal corrosion). It has three main characteristics: ① Stress corrosion fracture is a function of time. The greater the tensile stress, the shorter the time required for fracture ； The stress required for fracture is generally lower than the yield strength of the material. Such stresses include those generated by external loads, residual stresses, and the wedge-shaped stress caused by corrosion products. ②The corrosive medium is specific; stress corrosion cracking occurs only in certain metal-medium combinations (see the table of typical systems prone to stress corrosion cracking – combinations of metals and corrosive media). In the absence of stress, the corrosion rate of metal in its specific corrosive environment is minimal. ③The fracture velocity lies between pure corrosion and pure mechanical failure, and the fracture surface is generally of a brittle type. Hydrogen embrittlement (HE), also known as hydrogen-induced cracking or hydrogen damage, is a phenomenon in which the plasticity of metal materials decreases, leading to cracking or damage, as a result of the presence of hydrogen in those materials. The so-called “damage” refers to the decline in the mechanical properties of a material. \"Hysteresis failure\" occurs in the case of hydrogen embrittlement, as such failure takes some time to develop. The sources of hydrogen can be divided into two types: \"embedded\" and \"external\"; the former refers to the hydrogen absorbed by the material during its smelting and subsequent mechanical processing (such as welding, pickling, electroplating, etc.) ； The latter refers to the hydrogen absorbed by the material during use in a hydrogen-rich environment (see Hydrogen in Metals). Hydrogen environments include gases containing hydrogen, such as H₂ and H₂S ； It also includes the hydrogen released during the cathodic process when metals corrode in an aqueous solution. Stress corrosion cracking and hydrogen embrittlement of metals are two phenomena that are often related yet distinct from each other. Cracking of structural components in high-temperature and high-pressure hydrogen involves both HE and SCC ； In stress corrosion in aqueous solutions, if the hydrogen evolved during the cathodic process plays a decisive role in the fracture, then such failure is both SCC and HE; these two cases fall within the overlapping region shown in Figure 1, which illustrates the relationship between stress corrosion cracking (SCC) and hydrogen embrittlement (HE). Test methods and engineering parameters: Stress corrosion tests generally use smooth or notched specimens, with fixed environmental conditions (i.e., the corrosive medium and temperature). Fracture is taken as the critical point, and the fracture time at a fixed stress level (□□) or the fracture stress at a fixed □□ value is determined. The resistance of the material to stress corrosion fracture is assessed based on the length of □□ or the height of □□. Since the 1970s, fracture mechanics has been widely used to study stress corrosion fracture ； Stress corrosion tests were conducted using specimens with pre-existing cracks, as shown in Figure 2, which illustrates the relationship between the fracture time □□ and the stress field strength factor (□□). The fracture time □□□ increases as the stress field strength factor □(□□) decreases ； As □□ increases, □□ decreases and approaches a stable value of □□ (curve a), or □□ is determined using a given □□ (curve b). □□It is called the critical stress field strength factor for stress corrosion fracture, also known as the critical stress intensity factor for stress corrosion. According to the fracture mechanics formulas, it is possible to calculate its relationship with the fracture stress □□ and the critical crack depth □□: □ (1), where □ is the shape factor, which can be found in fracture mechanics handbooks. The growth rate of crack depth (□) (d□/d□) varies with □I, and generally follows a three-stage relationship as shown in Figure 3, which depicts the relationship between crack growth rate (d□/d□) and □□. The service life can be estimated based on the d□/d□ value in Stage II and Equation (1). The various test methods mentioned above are also applicable to hydrogen embrittlement; in this case, the specimen is either pre-charged with hydrogen or subjected to loading in a hydrogen-rich environment (gas phase or liquid phase), and results similar to those shown in Figure 2, namely the relationship between fracture time □□ and the stress field strength factor (□□), as well as those in Figure 3, namely the relationship between crack growth rate (d□/d□) and □□, are generally obtained. Furthermore, for the pre-hydrogenated specimens, a standard tensile test was also conducted, and the embrittlement coefficient □ was determined using the change in cross-sectional area reduction (□): □ = (2), where □□ and □□ represent the values of □ for the unhydrogenated and hydrogenated specimens, respectively. Obviously, the larger □, the greater the susceptibility to hydrogen embrittlement. Influencing factors and mechanism of action: Anodic dissolution mechanism. Stress corrosion cracking requires selective corrosion to occur first, and the corrosion of metals is influenced by the anodic polarization curve shown in (a) of the polarization curves for various parts of the corrosion pit in Figure 4. Taking stainless steel as an example, increasing the Cl- content in the medium, reducing the O²⁻ content and pH value in the medium, will all cause the anodic polarization curve in graph (a) of the polarization curves for various parts (b) of the corrosion pit in Figure 4a to shift from left to right. These four curves correspond to different positions within the corrosion pit or crack area (the polarization curves for various parts (b) of the corrosion pit in Figure 4b). The main effect of stress is to cause metal slip or crack propagation; both of these mechanical effects can destroy the passivation film, thereby allowing the anodic process to resume and promoting local corrosion. After the passivation film is damaged, it can be passivated again. If the passivation rate is further lower than the rate at which the passivation film is destroyed, stress and corrosion act in synergy, leading to stress corrosion cracking. The anodic dissolution mechanism explains the main characteristic of stress corrosion fracture—the corrosive medium is specific. Because stress corrosion cracking can occur only within a very narrow potential range of activation-deactivation or deactivation-reactivation (the fracture potential region in Figure 5) ； For a given combination of metal media, there is a fixed open-circuit potential; if this potential falls within the stress corrosion cracking potential range of the metal as indicated in the stress corrosion cracking potential region in Figure 5, stress corrosion cracking will occur. This mechanism can also explain many new experimental phenomena. For example, the anodic polarization curve of ferritic stainless steels with a Cr content of 17–25% – Mo 5% – Cu 0.37% (or Ni 1%) is similar to that of austenitic stainless steels with 18% Cr – 8% Ni. In hot concentrated MgCl₂ aqueous solutions, these two types of stainless steels suffer from stress corrosion cracking despite their different microstructures. Another example is that brass undergoes stress corrosion cracking in alkaline aqueous solutions containing NH₃ (see the table above); however, through anodic polarization, brass can also experience stress corrosion cracking in acidic aqueous solutions containing HNO₃ and H₂SO₄. The mechanism of anode dissolution was once called the “activation pathway mechanism,” with the belief that such an activation pathway exists in advance. For example, the grain boundary regions of high-strength aluminum alloys, □ brass, and low-carbon steel. However, pre-existing activation pathways are not a necessity. For example, in oxidizing aqueous solutions containing NH□, SCC in □brass occurs along the grain boundaries ； However, in non-oxidizing aqueous solutions containing NH□, SCC is transcrystalline. The hydrogen-induced cracking mechanism, also known as the hydrogen embrittlement mechanism, is the second mechanism of stress corrosion fracture. This mechanism acknowledges that SCC must first involve corrosion; however, pure electrochemical dissolution, in many cases, is neither able to explain the rate of SCC nor the brittle fracture morphology of SCC. The hydrogen embrittlement mechanism suggests that closed cells form within pits or cracks; local equilibrium results in a low pH at the root of the crack or the bottom of the pit, which is a necessary condition for the cathodic reaction that releases hydrogen. Hydrogen embrittlement caused by this hydrogen entering the metal is the main cause of SCC. This mechanism depends on whether hydrogen can enter the metal and whether the metal has a high susceptibility to hydrogen embrittlement. SCC of high-strength steel in aqueous solutions and SCC of titanium alloys in seawater are caused by hydrogen embrittlement. The mechanism of hydrogen-induced cracking can be considered from three aspects: ① Driving force theory. The internal stresses generated by the gases (CH₄), H₂O formed as a result of chemical reactions, as well as the hydrogen bubbles and H₂ gas produced by precipitation reactions, along with the stress associated with hydrogen-induced martensitic transformation, can all combine with applied or residual stresses to cause cracking. ②Resistance theory. Hydrogen-induced phase transformation products such as martensite or hydrides, as well as the decrease in metal bonding energy and surface energy caused by dissolved hydrogen, can all reduce the resistance to hydrogen-induced cracking and promote cracking. ③Process theory. The diffusion and accumulation of hydrogen under multi-directional stress gradients at the crack tip, the influence of surface films on hydrogen ingress and effusion, the penetration of hydrogen into and emergence from internal defects in metals, and the effect of hydrogen on the plastic zone at the crack tip are all part of the theoretical mechanisms underlying hydrogen-induced cracking or hydrogen embrittlement. The three mechanisms mentioned above are not contradictory to each other, but rather complement one another. For a specific system, the governing mechanism should be determined based on the changes caused by hydrogen. To suppress stress corrosion cracking, suppression measures can be selected from the three aspects of material, stress, and corrosion, based on known patterns and underlying mechanisms. Material inhibition: In stress corrosion systems, the higher the yield strength of a material (□□), the lower its □□ value (see the relationship between □□, □□, and □□ for 640CrNiMo steel in Figure 6). The dashed lines in the figure show the relationship between the crack depth □□ in equation (1) and □□ as well as □□: the higher □□ is, the smaller the allowable □□ becomes, and thus the less secure the component is. For steel pipes used in oil and gas fields containing H₂S, the hardness is generally kept below HRC 22 in order to suppress SCC. In a boiling 42% MgCl₂ aqueous solution, the commonly used Cr18%-Ni8% austenitic stainless steel exhibits the highest stress corrosion sensitivity; increasing nickel content and reducing chromium content can both decrease this sensitivity. Furthermore, the use of over-aging treatment (see desolvation) can reduce the stress corrosion cracking susceptibility of Zn-Mg-Cu alloy systems. Stress suppression: Reducing tensile stress can decrease susceptibility to stress corrosion fracture. For example, brass parts that have undergone cold working, as well as welded parts made of austenitic stainless steel, can also be protected from stress corrosion cracking as shown in the table above through annealing to eliminate residual stresses. Shot blasting, rolling, and other machining processes that create a state of residual compressive stress on the surface are also effective in preventing stress corrosion cracking. The notch radius (□) affects the stress concentration factor, and is thus also an important factor influencing □□ (the relationship between Figure 7□□ and the notch radius (□)). Therefore, increasing the □ of the component can effectively improve its resistance to stress corrosion cracking. Corrosion inhibition: Improving the design to prevent the accumulation of corrosive agents is an effective measure. For example, austenitic stainless steel pipes tend to absorb Cl-□ in an atmosphere containing Cl-□ and gradually become enriched with it; this problem was successfully resolved by first applying silica gel oil to the outer wall of the pipe and then covering it with an insulating layer. Pre-treatment of the medium is also an important measure. For example, the water used in turbine generator sets should be pre-treated to reduce the NaOH content ； In the stainless steel heat exchangers of nuclear reaction equipment, it is necessary to reduce the levels of Cl- and O□ in the water to below the PPm range. Corrosion inhibitors, coatings, and electrochemical protection can all be used to suppress corrosion. It should be noted that in stress corrosion mechanisms involving hydrogen embrittlement, both cathodic polarization and anodic polarization can promote the release of hydrogen in local areas, thereby accelerating the propagation of crack paths. To suppress hydrogen embrittlement, the mechanism that plays a decisive role must first be identified, after which measures can be taken. For example, the damage to structural steel caused by high-temperature, high-pressure hydrogen as well as hydrogen corrosion are believed to be resulting from the pressure of methane, a product of the following reaction: Fe□C + 2H□ → 3Fe + CH□. When the pressure of methane within the material increases to a level at which the steel’s creep fracture strength can no longer resist it, grain-boundary cracking occurs. Therefore, alloying elements that can form stable carbides, such as chromium, molybdenum, vanadium, niobium, tungsten, etc., are added. These elements either dissolve solidly in Fe□C, thereby increasing its stability, or they form alloy carbides that reduce the amount of Fe□C ； On the other hand, these elements can effectively improve the creep fracture strength of steel. Therefore, these alloy structural steels have a higher resistance to hydrogen corrosion than carbon steels. As can be seen from the Nelsen diagram recommended by the American Petroleum Institute (API) (Figure 8: Diagram of steel resistance to hydrogen corrosion, indicating under which conditions steel can be used safely over a long period), when the operating temperature of components and the hydrogen pressure are high, steel with higher levels of chromium and molybdenum should be selected. Another example is that unstable austenitic stainless steels can suffer from hydrogen embrittlement due to hydrogen-induced martensitic transformation. Therefore, to suppress hydrogen embrittlement, stable austenitic stainless steels should be selected. Measures to reduce or suppress hydrogen content in materials can be summarized into two aspects: ① Reducing the hydrogen content. Dry materials are used in the smelting process, or vacuum treatment or vacuum smelting is employed further ； Low-hydrogen electrodes are used during welding ； During pickling and electroplating, use corrosion inhibitors or adopt processes to reduce the amount of hydrogen introduced. ②Hydrogen removal treatment. The cooling of alloy structural steel forgings must be slow to prevent hydrogen-induced cracking (white spots) ； When welding alloy structural steel, preheating before welding and baking after welding are generally employed to facilitate hydrogen removal. For high-strength steels and highly alloyed ferritic steels sensitive to hydrogen embrittlement, it is necessary to bake them for a sufficient length of time after pickling and electroplating to remove hydrogen.

Hydrogen embrittlement can also be considered a form of corrosion. Broadly speaking, metal corrosion refers to the physico-chemical interactions between metals and environmental media, which result in changes in the properties of the metals and can lead to damage to the metals, the environment, or the systems in which they are used as components.

Hydrogen embrittlement: Under high temperature and pressure, molecular hydrogen is partially broken down into atomic hydrogen; or in a wet acidic corrosive environment, hydrogen atoms are generated through electrochemical reactions. Once these hydrogen atoms penetrate into the steel, they reduce the bonding force between the steel’s grains, resulting in a decrease in the steel’s elongation and reduction ratio, as well as changes in its strength. This phenomenon is known as hydrogen embrittlement. Hydrogen embrittlement is a type of embrittlement that is reversible ； After the hydrogen is released through heat treatment, the metal will regain its original mechanical properties. Factors affecting hydrogen embrittlement include: 1) Hydrogen partial pressure. The higher the hydrogen partial pressure, the shorter the delay time to failure ； 2) Temperature: Hydrogen embrittlement does not occur at high temperatures; at such levels it has transformed into hydrogen corrosion. It does not occur either when the temperature is too low, because hydrogen lacks the activity to penetrate extensively into the metal lattice at such times. It generally occurs in the temperature range of -30°C to 30°C ； 3) The strength of metal materials; the higher the strength, the greater the likelihood of hydrogen embrittlement ； 4) The index of hydrogen embrittlement in the metal’s microstructure, such as martensitic structure, is 3 times that of spheroidally pearlitic structure ； 5) Stress level: The brittle fracture of materials occurs under sufficient stress. By reducing the stress level below the energy required for lattice slip, hydrogen embrittlement will not occur. Engineering measures to prevent hydrogen embrittlement include: avoiding use in its temperature-sensitive zones ； Choose materials with low strength ； Reduce the stress levels of metal components.

Hydrogen embrittlement is definitely a form of corrosion. There are many ways to prevent corrosion: reducing hydrogen content, applying appropriate heat treatment processes to all steel materials, using protective coatings, or keeping the temperature below 200 degrees and the hydrogen partial pressure below 2 Mpa

1. First of all, once hydrogen embrittlement occurs, it cannot be eliminated. Hydrogen embrittlement occurs when hydrogen dissolved in steel aggregates into hydrogen molecules, resulting in stress concentration that exceeds the steel’s strength limit and leads to the formation of tiny cracks within the steel. Also known as white spots. Hydrogen embrittlement can only be prevented; it cannot be cured. The main issue in your case is poor control of the pickling process. 　　First, try to shorten the pickling time as much as possible ； Secondly, a corrosion inhibitor is added to reduce hydrogen production. 　　Hydrogen embrittlement (or hydrogen damage) of pressure vessels refers to the erosion of their walls by hydrogen, which leads to a reduction in the material’s plasticity and strength, and consequently to cracking or delayed brittle failure. The damage caused by high-temperature and high-pressure hydrogen to steel is mainly due to hydrogen penetrating into the metal in atomic form and then recombining into molecules inside the metal, generating high pressure; in severe cases, this can lead to bulging or wrinkling of the surface ； Hydrogen combines with carbon in steel, causing decarburization of the steel, or reducing the sulfides and oxides present in it. The hydrogen that causes hydrogen embrittlement failure in pressure vessels can be present originally in the equipment; for example, moisture from steelmaking and welding processes is reduced to produce hydrogen at high temperatures, which then dissolves in the liquid metal. Or during electroplating or pickling, the hydrogen atoms adsorbed on the steel surface become supersaturated, allowing hydrogen to penetrate into the steel ； It can also be absorbed into the medium after use; for example, in petroleum and chemical containers, there are many mediums that contain hydrogen or impurities such as hydrogen sulfide. The characteristics of hydrogen embrittlement in steel are mainly manifested in the microstructure. On its corroded surface, decarburized ferrite of steel can often be seen, and the hydrogen embrittlement layer features corrosion cracks that extend along the grain boundaries. In containers with particularly severe corrosion, bulges caused by hydrogen embrittlement can be observed macroscopically. Whether a container containing hydrogen (or hydrogen sulfide) in a medium will suffer from hydrogen embrittlement depends mainly on the operating temperature, the partial pressure of hydrogen, the exposure time, and the chemical composition of the steel. The higher the temperature and the greater the hydrogen partial pressure, the deeper the hydrogen embrittlement layer in carbon steel, and the shorter the time before hydrogen embrittlement failure occurs; among these factors, temperature is particularly important. The higher the carbon content in steel, the greater its tendency to hydrogen embrittlement under the same temperature and pressure conditions. Adding elements such as chromium, titanium, and vanadium to steel can prevent the occurrence of hydrogen embrittlement. 　　Workpieces affected by hydrogen embrittlement can have this issue eliminated through dehydrogenation treatments such as heating; heating in a vacuum, low-hydrogen atmosphere, or inert atmosphere can also prevent hydrogen embrittlement. For example, in the dehydrogenation of electroplated parts, heating at a temperature of 200–240 degrees for 2–4 hours can remove the vast majority of hydrogen. 　　Hydrogen does not cause significant corrosion of steel at normal temperature and pressure, but when the temperature exceeds 300°C and the pressure is above 30 MPa, a corrosion defect known as hydrogen embrittlement occurs, especially under high-temperature conditions. Such as the desulfurization tower, shift tower, and ammonia synthesis tower in the ammonia synthesis production process ； Some hydrogenation reaction units in the refining process ； Methanol synthesis towers in the petrochemical production process, etc.

I strongly disagree with the claim above that hydrogen embrittlement cannot be eliminated once it occurs. Below are the definitions of hydrogen embrittlement and hydrogen corrosion that I found later by researching related materials; please feel free to raise any objections. 1. Hydrogen embrittlement: This is the embrittling phenomenon caused by the absorption of hydrogen in steel. When steel is used in hydrogen-rich environments, hydrogen diffuses into the gaps between the crystal grains in atomic form, and then accumulates around the grain boundaries or non-metallic inclusions in molecular form. Although there are no particularly notable changes in the tensile strength or hardness of metals, their notched strength and toughness near room temperature decrease significantly, and cracks may sometimes occur. In materials affected by hydrogen embrittlement, if no cracks have formed, their ductility and toughness can be restored through dehydrogenation treatment. 2. Hydrogen corrosion: Under high temperature and pressure conditions, hydrogen that penetrates into steel reacts with the cementite present in the steel to produce methane. This leads to decarburization at the grain boundaries of the steel as well as in the voids, impurities, and discontinuities surrounding them, resulting in the accumulation of methane. As pressure increases, tiny gaps gradually form. This reaction process intensifies as temperature and pressure increase, ultimately leading to local yielding or bulging as well as the formation of cracks, resulting in a significant decline in the material’s properties. Fe3C + 2H2 → Fe + CH4↑ Hydrogen corrosion does not see its properties restored even after dehydrogenation treatment; it is an irreversible process. The higher the carbon content in steel, the more susceptible it is to hydrogen corrosion; therefore, the carbon content should be strictly controlled to less than 0.15%. One final question: It is reasonable to define hydrogen corrosion as a type of corrosion phenomenon. Is hydrogen embrittlement corrosion?

Hydrogen embrittlement: It is the embrittling phenomenon caused by the absorption of hydrogen in steel. When steel is used in hydrogen-rich environments, hydrogen diffuses into the gaps between the crystal grains in atomic form, and then accumulates around the grain boundaries or non-metallic inclusions in molecular form. Although there are no particularly notable changes in the tensile strength or hardness of metals, their notched strength and toughness near room temperature decrease significantly, and cracks may sometimes occur. In materials affected by hydrogen embrittlement, if no cracks have formed, their ductility and toughness can be restored through dehydrogenation treatment. But there is a time limit issue with this. Irreversible damage will occur if the time limit is exceeded

1. Hydrogen blister Definition: Hydrogen atoms diffuse into the metal (mostly through the wall), where they combine on the other side to form hydrogen molecules that then escape. If hydrogen atoms diffuse into the voids in steel and combine there to form hydrogen molecules, and since these hydrogen molecules cannot diffuse, they accumulate and create high internal pressures, leading to bulging or even cracking of the steel surface—a phenomenon known as hydrogen embrittlement. Low-strength steels, especially those containing a large amount of non-metallic inclusions, are most prone to hydrogen blistering. Corrosion environments that cause hydrogen bulging: The medium usually contains toxins such as hydrogen sulfide, arsenic compounds, cyanides, or phosphorus ions. These media prevent the hydrogen evolution reaction. Preventive measures: Eliminate toxic agents ； If it cannot be eliminated, use a calm steel with fewer pores, or an austenitic stainless steel with low hydrogen permeability. Or use nickel lining, rubber-lined lining, plastic protective layer, fiberglass lining, etc ； Sometimes, a corrosion inhibitor is added. The density of the body-centered cubic lattice is 0.68 (meaning that 68% of the lattice’s volume is occupied by atoms, with the remainder being voids), and its coordination number is 8 (the higher the coordination number, the tighter the arrangement of atoms and the smaller the voids) ； The density of the face-centered cubic lattice and the hexagonal close-packed lattice is 0.74, with a coordination number of 12. 5 2. Hydrogen embrittlement Definition: In high-strength steels, the metal lattice is highly deformed; when hydrogen atoms enter the metal, they increase the strain in the lattice, thereby reducing toughness and ductility and causing embrittlement. This phenomenon is known as hydrogen embrittlement. Hydrogen embrittlement is not related to voids in the steel, so relying solely on the use of killed steel is ineffective. Preventive measures: Use materials that are not sensitive to hydrogen embrittlement, such as alloy steels containing Ni and Mo. During the manufacturing process, try to avoid or minimize the generation of hydrogen. 3 3. Hydrogen embrittlement Definition: Under high temperature and pressure conditions, hydrogen enters the metal and reacts chemically with a certain component or element, resulting in the degradation of the metal; this phenomenon is known as hydrogen embrittlement. At temperatures above 200°C, hydrogen enters low-strength steel and reacts with carbides to produce methane gas. This gas occupies a large volume, causing small cracks and voids within the metal, which in turn makes the steel brittle and prone to breaking under even slight deformation. This kind of rupture occurs without any warning and is extremely dangerous. Preventive measures: Use hydrogen-resistant steel. Options include 16MnR (HIC), 15CrMoR (equivalent to 1Cr-0.5Mo), 14Cr1MoR (equivalent to 1.25Cr-0.5Mo), 2Cr-0.5Mo, 2.25Cr-1Mo, 2.25Cr-1Mo-0.25V, 3Cr-1Mo-0.25V, etc. Cr and Mo in hydrogen-resistant steel can form stable carbides, thereby reducing the chances of hydrogen combining with carbon and preventing the formation of methane gas. In theory, hydrogen corrosion is divided into three types, but in practice, all three types of corrosion occur almost simultaneously. Therefore, for equipment operating in hydrogen-corrosion environments (hydrogen-rich environments), material selection is generally carried out based on the Nelson curve, and this matter requires great attention. This content is sourced from: “Chemical Equipment Technology Forum Electronic Magazine (Issue 1)” founded by the Chemical Equipment Technology Forum”